ENZYMES PART 2, ENZYME KINETICS

Enzymes are biocatalysts. They facilitate biochemical reactions. Enzymes lower activation energy as they facilitate productive collision between reactants. The rate of enzymes-substrate reaction at optimum temperature, and pH, depends on substrate concentration and rate constant Km.

ENZYME LOWERS ACTIVATION ENERGY

Chemical reactions are well-balanced reactions where substrates combine with each other to form products. The product dissociates to form substrate this type of reaction is called reversible reaction. Other types of reactions where products cannot be converted into reactants are called Irreversible reactions. In Irreversible reactions, the conversion of the products back to the reactants is thermodynamically not feasible.

 For a chemical reaction to occur the substrates have to collide with each other to combine and form the product. The collision depends on the kinetic energy of the substrates. If the kinetic energy is very low the substrates will not productively collide with each other that is, the substrate will unable to form products.  The substrates are required to gain that much energy to collide and form products. This is called the Energy barrier appears in the form of activation energy. 

Activation energy

The activation energy is the minimum amount of energy that is required for a productive collision of substrates. The activation energy is always higher than the energy which reactants possess and this energy act as an energy barrier for the conversion of reactants into products.

 This Energy barrier is overcome by heating or supplying the external energy to the reactants.  This increases their kinetic energy, and they now can collide with each other to form products.

ENZYME LOWERS ACTIVATION ENERGY

ENZYME LOWERS ACTIVATION ENERGY

 For enzyme-substrate reactions, enzymes transiently bind with reactants and facilitate their collision. This transient binding of enzymes with reactants lowers the requirement of high kinetic energy to convert reactants into products. Enzyme lowers the activation energy required for a chemical reaction. This facilitates the reactions to occur at body temperature. 

 Further, the enzyme-substrate reactions are multistep reactions where a small amount of energy is released in each step and this energy is stored in the form of bond energy of the products.

ORDER OF ENZYME-SUBSTRATE REACTION

 Enzymes substrate reactions can be a first-order reaction or second-order reaction, as the rate of reaction depends upon the concentration of reactants that productively collide with each other. If the rate of reaction doubles if the concentration of reactants is doubled. The rate of reaction doubles when concentration is doubled for one reactant and the other reactant is kept constant, then the rate of reaction will be first-order for the first reactant and second-order for the second reactant. The rate of reaction can be first-order only if the rate of reaction depends on the concentration of the reactant.

 As the chemical reactions are always at equilibrium so the rate of the forward reaction is always equal to the rate of backward reaction. The ratio of reaction constant for the forward reaction and backward reactions are always equal to the rate constant of equilibrium. 

The enzyme lowers the kinetic energy required for a reaction, but enzymes have no effect on the equilibrium constant Keq, the rate constant of reaction at equilibrium. 

 What affects enzyme-substrate reaction?

The enzyme-substrate reactions are affected by many factors including temperature, pH, and substrate concentration.

Temperature

 For an optimum rate of reaction, the temperature must be optimum. Raising the temperature increases the rate of reaction because it increases the rate of collision of the reactants. 

Enzymes are made of protein so, rising temperatures too high will denature the enzyme and this will decrease the rate of reaction.

 Human enzymes remain active at a temperature from 45 degrees Celsius to 55 degrees Celsius. Enzymes of the thermophilic organism remain active even at 100 degrees Celsius. 

Temperature coefficient Q10 states that every 10-degree rise in temperature doubles the rate of reaction. 

Temperature Coefficient applies to cold-blooded animals where their body temperature depends upon the temperature of the environment. It rises and falls with the external environment. 

The organisms that have the same body temperature and they do not follow the rise and fall in temperature of the environment, their body temperature varies only in case of fever or hypothermia. 

 The pH of the medium

 Intracellular enzymes require optimum pH for their activity. The concentration of hydrogen ions varies with pH. At a very low concentration of hydrogen ion that is at basic pH and a very high concentration of hydrogen ion that is at acidic pH.

 Enzymes are made of proteins, hydrogen ions are required for the formation of a Salt Bridge between the enzyme and substrate. In absence of hydrogen ions, enzymes are unable to form Salt Bridge so, they cannot recognize and transiently bind with the substrate. This will not allow the reaction to occur.

 The effect of concentration of substrate on enzyme kinetics

 Enzymes transiently bind with the substrate to convert them into products and the rate of reaction for enzyme-substrate reaction directly depends upon the concentration of substrates. If the concentration of enzyme is kept constant then any increase in the concentration of substrate will increase the rate of reaction. However, this will not appear as a straight line graph because enzyme after reaching saturation, there will be no further increase in the rate of reaction.

 When substrate concentration is maximum the rate of reaction will now depend upon the dissociation of enzymes from the substrates so that free enzymes are available for binding with the reactants. At a high concentration of reactants, the concentration of enzyme will become a limiting factor 

Michaelis Menten and Hill equation

 Michaelis- Menten, and Hill give an equation to determine the concentration effect of substrate on the rate of reaction. It was proposed that the rate of reaction is directly proportional to the concentration of substrates. 

 Enzymes transiently bind with the substrate to convert them into products and the rate of reaction for enzyme-substrate reaction directly depends upon the concentration of substrates. If the concentration of enzyme is kept constant then, any increase in the concentration of substrate will increase the rate of reaction. However, this will not appear as a straight line graph because enzyme after reaching saturation, there will be no further increase in the rate of reaction.

When substrate concentration is maximum the rate of reaction will now depend upon the dissociation of enzymes from the substrates so that free enzymes are available for binding with the reactants. At a high concentration of reactants, the concentration of enzymes will become a limiting factor.

If A and B are reactants, P is the product of a reaction at equilibrium. The initial rate of reaction Vi will be proportional to the concentration of reactants. 

(1)If substrate concentration is very low

At a very low concentration of substrate initial velocity is proportional to the concentration of substrate

 

(2) If substrate concentration is much greater than K_m

At very high concentration initial velocity is equal to maximum velocity, at a very high concentration rate of reaction is maximum

 

(3) If the concentration of substrate equal to K_m

Thus for enzyme-substrate reaction, rate constant K_m is the concentration of substrate at which rate of reaction is equal to half of the maximum rate of reaction.

Competitive inhibition of enzyme

From the above discussion, it can be concluded that the rate of reaction for an enzyme-substrate reaction depends on the concentration of substrates and Km of the enzyme. Km is specific for an enzyme.

This discussion also explains the enzyme inhibition by competitive inhibitor, where an inhibitor competes for the active site of an enzyme. If the concentration of substrate is higher than the inhibitor the enzyme will form the products. if the inhibitor is present in high concentration it will bind with the enzyme. Thus occupy the active site of the enzyme. As the enzyme can not convert the inhibitors into products, the rate of reaction decreases i.e. the reaction is inhibited.

ENZYMES PART -1

 Enzymes are biocatalyst. These are required in small amounts in a chemical reaction. Enzymes convert substrates into products without being utilized in the reaction. Enzymes were considered to be proteins, but ribozymes are enzymes that are made of RNA molecules.  Antibodies that have catalytic activity are called abzyme.

 FASTEST ENZYMES AND TURNOVER RATE

 Enzymes convert substrate into  product in a second this is called turnover rate.

 Some of the fastest enzymes are carbonic anhydrase that converts 600000 molecules of carbon dioxide and water in carbonic acid in a second,this is fastest known enzyme.

 Catalase converts 93000 molecules into the product, then being beta-galactosidase 200 molecules/second, trypsin, and tyrosinase also have good turnover rate.

 The enzymes are specific catalyst that is, they can convert only their substrate into product. Glucose oxidase can convert only beta D glucose

 Group specific enzyme convert a group of the substrate into products example Alkaline phosphatase that removes the phosphate group from a variety of substrate.

CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES

There are six main classes of Enzymes. These are classified on the basis of reaction to carry out.

 Oxidoreductases are the enzymes that carry out oxidation or reduction reaction

 Transferases are the enzymes that transfer one atom or group

 Hydrolases that carry out hydrolysis

 Lyases they remove a group

 Isomerases that bring about isomerization reaction

 Ligases this enzyme join molecules

 Secondary classes of enzymes have been formed for example oxidoreductases  may have secondary classes  based on  molecules that have donated hydrogen or electrons

 Tertiary classes of enzymes of oxidoreductase are based on hydrogen or electron receptor is involved in oxidation-reduction reactions.

The primary, secondary, and tertiary classes are denoted by numeric value.

^Thus lactate dehydrogenase with the EC number 1.1.1.27 is an oxidoreductase (indicated by the first digit) with the alcohol group of the lactate molecule as the hydrogen donor (second digit) and NAD+ as the hydrogen acceptor (third digit), and is the 27th enzyme to be categorized within this group (fourth digit)^1.

 

ENZYME ACTIVITY

 Enzyme substrate activity enzyme has an active site, in its three-dimensional structure as enzymes are made of proteins and proteins are folded in a specific way so enzyme may have a specific site for binding with the substrate. This specific site is called an active site. Enzyme and substrate bind at this site, this activity was explained by Emil Fischer through his lock and key hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, the enzyme has a specific active site that has conformation such that only the substrate can bind with it.

REPRESENTATION OF ENZYME-SUBSTRATE REACTION

 However, it was later proved by x-ray crystallography experiments the episode o flexible and changed after binding with the substrate this was then explained by the induced fit model given by Daniel Koshland where the enzyme's active site modifies itself to accurately bind with its substrate.

HOLOENZYME, APOENZYME, COFACTORS, COENZYME, METALLOEZYMES

 Enzymes not only have a protein structure(apoenzyme) but it has some accessory molecules that are involved in their activity these molecules are called a cofactor.

HOLOENZYME

 The enzyme along with the cofactor is called a holoenzyme. So, holoenzyme has two parts an apoenzyme enzyme that is a catalytic part that is mainly made of a protein, the cofactor is the necessary part which may be a coenzyme, a prosthetic group, or metal ion. So, the cofactors are two types organic or inorganic.

Apoenzyme +cofactor = holoenzyme

 Organic cofactors are mainly coenzymes such as NAD, NADPH.

 Inorganic cofactor can be a metal ion, Such enzymes are called metalloenzymes.

 Prosthetic group are cofactors that are tightly bound to apoenzymes to form holoenzyme.

References

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4692135/

HYPERPIGMENTATION ( CAUSES, TREATMENT, AND HOME REMEDIES)

 Hyperpigmentation

 It is excessive production of melanin. Hyperpigmentation is the main problem in the colored population of Asia, Africa. Hyperpigmentation manifests in form of dark patches in a different part of the body. It is most prominent on the face, neck, and forearms.

 Hyperpigmentation can appear in form of brown, dark brown, grey Brown, or blue-grey, purple, black patches on the skin. It is common in both men and women.

 This also depends upon Lifestyle habits. This is a Cosmetic condition where treatment of skin is used to lighten the affected or protect the area from becoming worse sometimes. 

TYPES OF HYERPIGMENTATION

 Hyperpigmentation is of three types. It is called melasma, a sunspot, or post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation.

 Melasma is pregnancy-related hyperpigmentation. It occurs due to hormonal change. The hyperpigmented areas develop on the face, neck, and stomach. These occur due to hormonal changes during pregnancy. It may also occur due to the intake of oral contraceptives. Addison's disease that affects the adrenal gland's function also causes melasma.

 Sunspots are also called liver Spots. It mainly develops due to sun exposure in the colored population many developed on the face, neck, and arms

 Post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation is mainly caused by inflammation in facial skin, or due to acne or skin allergy.  Sometimes the hyperpigmentation may be caused by some diseases, such as Chikungunya this is also classified into post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation.

 BIOLOGICAL ROLE OF MELANIN

 Biologically hyperpigmentation occurs due to the formation of melanin in melanocytes. The melanin in the colored populations is evenly distributed in melanocytes in different parts of the body. The melanin is normally produced in melanocytes and is evenly distributed in the body in colored people they protect from UVA and UVB. 

 In hyperpigmentation, melanin is produced in large amounts, and stored in lysosomes organelle is called melanosomes. The melanocytes accumulate in patches in the dermis and the epidermis during hyperpigmentation. These melanocytes are normally engulfed by macrophages to remove the melanin patches in hyperpigmented areas, but this process may take 2 to 5 weeks or even years in some people.

The causes of hyperpigmentation

 HORMONAL IMBALANCE

It is caused by hormonal imbalance as in the case of melasma. It is caused by oral contraceptives are taken. The pregnancy hormone causes the production of melanin and the production of hyperchromatic cells in the dermis and epidermis. Addison's disease where the endocrine hormone imbalance causes hyperpigmentation

 POST-INFLAMMATORY HYPERPIGMENTATION OR PIH

 Post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation is caused due to injury or inflammation in the skin this may be due to some allergic reaction on the skin this may be caused by acne or eczema. Some diseases or continuous fever may also cause hyperpigmentation.

DRUGS

 Intakes of drugs that make skin sensitive to sunlight also cause hyperpigmentation. A superficial burn injury may also cause hyperpigmentation long exposure to sunlight cause hyperpigmentation in the colored population. Chemotherapy drugs may also cause hyperpigmentation.

 The treatment of hyperpigmentation

 The treatment of hyperpigmentation in falls in cosmetic processes. There are three levels of cosmetic processes involved in the treatment of hyperpigmentation.

 Chemical peeling is done using Kojic acid, ascorbic acid, glycolic acid, hydroquinone. These acids are used alone or in combination. They are applied on dark patches. And are used for 2 to 7 weeks or until the skin lightens. Hydroquinone is also used for the treatment of hyperpigmentation. These preparations are available in over-the-counter creams.

 Sun blockage

 Using sunscreen in exposed areas of SPF 30 to 50. Using clothing that can block sunlight to the sensitive areas using long-rimmed hats, full sleeve clothes can decrease the exposure of skin to sunlight and protect the area from hyperpigmentation.

The cosmetic blockage is also used to hide the patch skin behind some cosmetic products.

 Laser treatment may be used for treating hyperpigmentation.

 TYROSIN DEHYDROGENASE INHIBITION

The enzyme tyrosine dehydrogenase inhibitors are used in long term for the treatment of hyperpigmentation. These are chemicals either directly inhibit the tyrosin dehydrogenase or block copper, thus inhibiting the activity of the enzyme that converts tyrosine into melanin. These Chemicals are hydroquinone, retinoids, ascorbic acid, or Vitamin C. Hydroquinone, however, is found to be the gold standard treatment for hyperpigmentation but in some patients, it may cause sensitivity to the skin.

 Home remedies for hyperpigmentation

 Gram flour mask

Multani mitti mask

Neem-tulsi mask 

Honey-lemon

Orange peel mask

Apple cider vinegar

 Green tea 

Black tea water

 Tomato paste

 Red onion

 Aloe vera gel

 Milk

Flaxseed gel cream

 These home remedies are used to treat hyperpigmentation

Gram flour mask 

Take a spoonful of gram flour, add a pinch of turmeric to it, add a small amount of milk to make a paste of it. Apply the paste on the face neck and arms, allowing it to dry, wash with water. This reduces inflammation and cleanses the skin and improves pigmentation.

Multani mitti mask

This mask is being used in India for centuries. Wetted  Multani mitti alone is applied on the area of sunspots or the whole face. This improves pigmentation. 

Neem-tulsi mask 

This mask is prepared using green leaves of Neem and tulsi ground and mixed with Multani mitti. Apply it to the affected area, allow it to dry, and wash with water. This mask can be used once a day for 5 to 6 weeks. Dry leaves can be stored and used for the same purpose.

Honey-lemon

A half spoonful of honey is mixed with 4-5 drops of lemon and applied to the face and arms. This reduces inflammation and hyperpigmentation. 

Orange peel mask

It can be used fresh or prepared for storage. Fresh orange peel (orange is cut in two pieces) dip it in the crud, apply on face, neck, and arms, apply repeatedly, wash with water. This activity is done once a week.

Otherwise, dry orange peel and pomegranate peel, make it a powder store it. Mix this powder in an equal amount of Multani mitti, add some water and apply to the affected area. Use regularly for better results.

 Apple cider vinegar is mixed with water and applied on dark patches left for 2-3 minutes and wash it with lukewarm water apply twice a day for 5 to 6 weeks.

 Aloe vera fresh aloe vera gel is applied on the affected skin at night. Leave overnight and wash it with lukewarm water in the morning aloe vera juice reduce tanning due to Sun.

 Red onion paste is applied to the skin and left for some time. Some creams contain red onion extract that also improves pigmentation.

 Green tea extract boil green tea leaves in water Aloe the back to cool rubbed the back on affected areas of skin repeat this daily for 2 to 6 weeks.

 Black tea water, boil tea leaves in water. Allow the water to cool. Filter it use this water by dipping cotton into it and apply on affected area repeat the activity daily for 5 to 6 week

 Milk dip cotton in milk and apply on affected areas repeat twice a day.  Continue the activity for a month or until your skin improves.

 Tomato paste 50-gram tomato paste is applied on the affected area of the skin it can improve the photo-affected area repeat the activity for 12 weeks.

 Flaxseed gel is added with aloe vera gel and almond oil makes it as a cream and applies to the affected area of skin it hydrate your skin and improve the tone of skin and make the skin look even.

SHIVA THE COSMIC DANCER

Natraja is a cosmic dancer. He is a beautiful dancer.  He dances in the ring of fire.

According to the legend once there were many sages in South India, to assess their qualification God Vishnu and God Shiva visited South India.  Vishnu turned to a beautiful lady and Shiva to be her guard. On seeing the mesmerizing beauty of that lady, the sages started to fight among themselves. When they could not decide with this fight, who is going to own this lady, they then run towards Shiva and tried to kill him. For this, they used mystical mantras and the fire of their Hovan, in this fire they created a tiger.   The tiger ran toward Shiva to kill him. Shiva with his nail tears off that tiger. He separated his skin and wore that skin as a loincloth. 

The sages got angry at Shiva with this. They started chanting Mantra and created the most poisonous snake. This snake attacked Shiva, but Shiva wore it around His neck. This poisonous snake represents fear of death, and Shiva, who is God of Death and wore this fear as a garland. In between the yogic fire, Shiva started dancing.

 The angered sages then created a devil known as Apsamar, the asur of forgetfulness, he represents indifference, ignorance, and laziness. This Asur is dark in color. It is the darkness of the heart. Shiva broke his back and started dancing over him. This states that a person who wanted to be successful has to win over the darkness of his heart.

 From the head of Shiva flanges of innumerable snakes come out. These snakes represent the negative thoughts of a person. If a person wants to become yogic he has to remove all these negative thoughts.

 This dancing Shiva has four Arms that spanned in all four directions that are north, south, east, and west. He is standing on Apsamar with his left foot and his right foot is gracefully raised above the ground, which says that one must be released from all the forces.

 His left arm is in form of Gaj Hast mudra which reminds us of the removal of obstacles. His right hand is raised in Abhay mudra, which states that God is the protector. In this statue one arm has fire and the other arm has the drum. The drum produces the first sound of the universe.  It says that creation needs rhythm. Further, The fire in his hands states that one needs to control one’s hunger if one wants to create,  the hunger of all worldly desires. Fire in his hand represents the hunger of a person. 

The crescent moon on his forehead represents that time is passing, and time is eternal. It’s going on whether the destruction is going on the construction is going on, The time is passing. He is surrounded by a fire circle which represents the whole of the universe he is standing in the middle of a lotus. According to legend represents the place of creation. Lotus also represents the mind of a person. It says that the creation and destruction all is going along in the mind of a person. The whole universe resides in the heart of a person. He has to balance himself in this universe, dance gracefully without the fear of death, to remove all the obstacles. He has to win over his darkness. He has to be the creator of life. He has to destroy all his negative thoughts.  He has to be Fearless. He has to be graceful. He has to be an Adi yogi.

 NATARAJA  AT CERN

 The  CERN, Switzerland, The Centre which has established the Large Hadron Collider. In LHC has created the  Boson Higgs particle the God particle. The GOD particle dances, the dance of Shiva, the Dance of Bliss.  This dance of these particles in the Large Hadron Collider is the dance of creation and annihilation. As the Nataraj statues prove that Shiva’s dance is Cosmic Dance, this dance proves that creation and destruction are going hand in hand. As shown in the cosmic dance of Shiva which is the dance of destruction, which is the dance of creation, and this dance balances the destruction and creation. Similarly, the subatomic particles dance in the Large Hadron Collider to create atoms that are the basis of all the molecules. This Natraj Statue is 2 meters high. It was gifted by the government of India in 2004. India is also an associate member of CERN. The proton collider in LCH uses energy to create mass. The way cosmic energy has created the universe.

Long and Strong hair: Tips and remedies

 

Long beautiful and strong hair is a dream of every girl. Hair of all textures,  all colors,  are beautiful, be it straight, be it curly, be it blonde, brown, or black. What makes hair beautiful is their health. Healthy hairs are always beautiful. For healthy hair, we must take care of hair as they are precious to us. 

Hair growth biology

Hairs grow naturally from the hair follicle. Biologically hair has 3 parts hair papilla, hair bulb, and hair shafts.  The hair papilla is the point where direct blood circulation occurs. It is the part that has a nerve supply.  It is the part from where hair gets its nourishment. The hair papilla enters into the hair bulb which is the main growing part of the hair. The hair bulb has an outer root covering, the inner root covering, and a hair matrix. The hair Matrix has melanin cells that grow and divide to produce melanin and are responsible for the color texture and growth of hair. If melanin is synthesized in a good amount the color of hair remains dark, but if, melanin pigment is not synthesized in these cells the color hair becomes Grey.

STRUCTURE OF HAIR FOLLICLE

 The external part of the hair is the hair shaft. The hair shaft has three parts medulla, cortex, and cuticle. The medulla is an extension of the innermost layer of hair. It is also called a pith. The cortex has maximum keratin the protein which is the main component of hair. The cuticle is a thin layer of the hair shaft. It is a protective layer and it gives here a glossy appearance to hair.

T.S. HAIR SHAFT

 The growth phases of hair have been divided into three phages, the anagen phase, the catagen phase, and the telogen phase. The anagen phase is the actively dividing and growing phase of hair.  It spans from 2 to 7 years. During this phase, hair grows at a rate of 0.5 inches per month or 15 cm per year. The hair growth, however, may depend upon the genetics of a person and if the other conditions remain optimum. This can be stated in other words, that hair grows to its maximum length in the span of 2 to 7 years. Anagen is the phase of active growth. The next stage is known as the catagen phase.  It is a transient phase during which the growth of hair slows down. This phase is extended to 2 to 3 weeks. Telogen phase, in this phase the hair growth stops, and ultimately the hair fall of. This is called the telogen phase. Once the hair fall, after some time new hair follicle appears and it starts dividing actively and forming new hair. So, after telogen, anagen is the next stage of hair growth. This continues the hair growth cycle.

STAGES OF HAIR GROWTH

 From the structure and the growth cycle of hair, it is clear that hair grows from the hair follicle.

 Hairs have a self-renewal procedure.

 The texture, type, and color of hair depend on the health of hair follicles.

 The cuticle gives a glossy appearance to hair. 

The hair shaft is a non-living part of the hair, so it doesn't feel any pain. The hair follicle has arrector pili muscles that help in hair moment.

 Hair gets nourishment through hair papilla, deeply embedded in the dermis. It is the supply of blood in the papilla that gives nutrients to hair follicles. So, if your body lacks nutrients your hair will also lack them.

Foods for long and strong hair 

The hair gets its nourishment from the papilla, which is embedded in the dermis. The hair does not get nourishment from the scalp. It gets nourishment from the blood supply that occurs directly into the hair follicle through the papilla.  If you want to nourish hair you need to take care of your diet. For better growth of hair, hair follicles must also be supplied with the appropriate amount of oxygen. We must have a good level of nutrients such as vitamins A, B, E, D, K, and C in our bodies for good hair growth. We must have a good amount of zinc, iron, Omega 6, and Omega 3 fatty acids if we want our hair to be strong and beautiful. The nutrients listed above are taken through food items. The superfoods for hair are

  

 Whole grains,

 Nuts,

 Spinach,

 Avocados,

 Berries,

 Seafood,

 Dark green vegetables,

 Beef,

 Red meat,

Lentils,

 Almonds,

 Salmon

 Whole grain

 These are rich in iron, carbohydrates, and protein that are required for hair growth.

 Eggs

Eggs are rich in vitamins A, B, and K. Egg helps in collagen formation. Vitamin B helps in the formation of red blood cells, which helps in oxygen circulation in hair follicles

 Spinach

 Spinach is rich in vitamin A, E, and iron. Iron helps in the formation of red blood cells so it increases oxygen supply to hair follicles.

 Lentils are rich in proteins, fibers, iron, and zinc so they help in collagen production, oxygen supply and reduce loss of hair.

 Avocados

 These are rich in vitamin E and Vitamin C. vitamin C helps in iron absorption. It is also an immunity booster, It increases the formation of red blood cells that will increase oxygen supply to hair follicles Pumpkin seeds are rich in proteins and zinc, and other vitamins.

 Nuts

 These are rich in healthy fatty acids, such as Omega 3 and Omega 6. These fatty acids are is required for good hair growth.

 Meat

Meat is rich in vitamin B and iron, these increase oxygen supply in hair follicles.

 Haircare tips and home remedies for hair growth 

 Haircare must include the MMMN approach. Where M stands for massage, mask, maintain, and N for nourish. Further, the damaged hair may need treatment.

 Massage

 Massage with some Essential oil or common oils increases blood supply into the scalp. It also activates oil glands that improve the texture of hair. It also helps in protecting the cuticle layer of hair, maintaining moisture in the hair, and protecting the hair from environmental damage. For the massage coconut oil, mustard oil, or almond oil, can be used. It is done one hour before the hair wash.

 Mask

 A hair mask of natural products such as flaxseed gel,  which is prepared by boiling flaxseed with water, filtering the gel product, adding some aloe vera gel and almond oil, spinning the mixture, and the gel is prepared. Mask your hair with this preparation for 2 hours before hair wash. It has cleansing properties. It maintains moisture in hairs and improves the quality of the cuticle layer.

 Aloe-vera gel can also be used for both of these purposes that is for mask and massage. It has antibacterial and antimicrobial activities so it also cleans the scalp from microbes. Maintain this routine to keep your hair healthy. 

A curd mask can be used for the same purposes.

An egg mask is used for dry hairs.

Wash your hair with homemade or natural shampoo. homemade shampoo is made using dried amla, ritha, and shikakai. If you use chemical-made shampoo, avoid using preparations that have sulfur.

Nourishment: how nutrients affect hair growth?

 Hair needs proteins also so, your diet must include proteins. Approximately, 50 grams of protein are required for good hair growth per day. Hair growth is the secondary activity of our body. If our body lacks any of the nutrients that are required for hair growth the first reaction of our body is to stop nourishing the hairs. So, it can be also seen that hair loss be a symptom of deficiency of nutrients. The nutrients that are required for good hair growth are Vitamin A, D, E, K, B, C, zinc, iron, Omega 6, Omega 3, and protein. Along with these nutrients, a good supply of oxygen. Increase activity of growth in hair follicles. So, take care of your diet if you want good growth of hair.

 Essential oils

 Essential oils are required for good hair growth. They are a scalp treatment for hair growth. These oils may have some itchy effects also or may cause allergies. So these oils are diluted with some other oil such as coconut oil, almond oil, or castor oil. Essential oil required for the good health of the hair is

 Lavender essential oil

 This oil has antimicrobial and antibacterial activity thus it keeps the scalp free from bacteria and microbes which is one of the important factors for hair growth.

 Peppermint oil increases the anagen phase of hair growth. It gives a cold and tingling feeling to the scalp.

 Rosemary essential oil

 This oil has the property of cell regeneration so, this oil is used for the fast growth of hair.

Cedarwood essential oil

  This oil increases oil gland production in the scalp, so naturally, improves the texture of hair. 

Lemongrass essential oil

Dandruff is a major problem to hair health, it increases itching on the scalp that invites other microbes to the scalp, and ultimately affects the growth of hair. Keeping the scalp free of dandruff is one of the challenges for good hair growth. Lemongrass has cleansing and antibacterial activities. So, it also keeps the scalp flake-free.

 Essential oils have cleansing and antibacterial activity so it also keeps our scalp healthy. Two or more of these Essential oils are mixed with diluting oil(The two-three drops of essential oils are added in two or three spoonfuls of diluting oil such as coconut oil, almond oil) and massaged on the scalp for 2-3 minutes and washed with shampoo. 

 The treatment of damaged hairs: Home remedies

 Onion juice treatment

 Red onions are grated and their juice is extracted. This juice is applied on the scalp this application increase inflammatory reaction on the scalp, which activates the cell of the scalp and treats the scalp of microbes. This inflammatory treatment activates hair follicles to grow.

 Ylang- ylang  essential oil treatment

This treatment improves hair texture. For this, the oil is applied and the hairs are covered with a warm towel for 30 min and washed with shampoo.

 Platelet-rich plasma treatment

 This is a medical treatment. It is an advanced technology, in this technology platelet of the person are stored and these platelets are then injected into the scalp of that person. This treatment is given to induce hair follicle formation after the telogen stage.

 Healing

 The aloe vera gel is a natural product for healing hair. Aloe vera gel is naturally extracted and applied on scalp and hair, kept overnight, and washed with lukewarm water. It heals the environmentally damaged hair, improves the texture.

 Fenugreek seed treatment

The moisture content of hair can be improved by treating them with Fenugreek seeds. The Fenugreek seed has natural oils. Two spoonfuls of Fenugreek seed are soaked in water overnight these are then ground in which with the addition of some water. This paste is applied to the hair scalp and hair strands. This paste has cleansing properties. It gives Essential oil to the hair and improves its texture. This paste can also be added into natural Henna for the same properties and this mixture will now act as a good mask as well as improve the hair texture

 Caffeine

 Caffeine also increases hair growth. It acts as a stimulant of hair follicles.

 From the above discussion, it can be concluded that we want to have healthy hair, we need a multidimensional approach, the treatment starts with increasing the essential nutrient in our diet. our diet must have a good amount of protein and all essential vitamins as well as zinc, iron, and good fatty acids. If we want good hair growth the scalp must be kept healthy and dandruff-free, for this Essential oil massage is used. Masking your hair at least twice a month reverses the adverse effect on the environment. Further, it must be kept in mind that we must use proper brushes for our hair. Avoid heat treatment and chemical treatment. For the good health of your hair avoid heat drying. Heat treatments damage the hair permanently. Dry your hair gently using a cotton towel. Chemicals increase itching and dryness of the scalp so it would be better if you use Natural Shampoo. Know your hair first, before you treat them.

SUPERFOODS FOR GOOD HEIGHT

 

The children of the same age have different heights.

The diet must have proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins, and antioxidants, and superfoods are those that have two or more than two of these nutrients in good available amount. The food must also contain good fats that are called monounsaturated fatty acids. So, a superfood is rich in vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Not a single food can have all these. So a balanced diet is needed in the growing years of a child.

 Further good metabolism, good gut health, lack of disease also play their role. Superfoods for good height should have vitamins, especially vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin C, vitamin D, and vitamin K. These foods must have calcium, potassium, and phosphorus. These foods become superfoods if they are rich in proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. Vitamins( A, D, C, B, and K) minerals are required for bone formation. Proteins are needed for muscle development and carbohydrates give energy to the body. Iodine is required for the production of thyroid hormone needed for good metabolism. In the growing years of a child, all these components must be present in his diet.

 The food that has most of the nutrients is called superfoods for healthy growth following food items are the super-food for good height.

  Green leafy vegetables

 Dark green leafy vegetables are rich in vitamin C, zinc,  calcium, iron, magnesium, and fibers.  These are also rich in antioxidants. These are good for the gut as they are rich in nutrient fibers; thus keeping the gut clean. These also increase water absorption in the large intestine. The dark green vegetables include turnip green, spinach, lettuce, and mustard green. These are bitter in taste so add them in salads or Saute them with olive oil to improve the taste.

 Berries

All berries are rich in antioxidants, Vitamin C. The antioxidants reduce the risk of cancer, heart disease and maintain blood pressure. Vitamin C is required for good metabolism. It is a fat-soluble vitamin. Vitamin C also boosts immunity. 

 Eggs

Eggs are rich in vitamin B and vitamin A. They have high protein content so they are also included in the list of superfoods. The proteins are required for the good growth of a person. It is required for the repair of wear and tear of the body, making new muscles, and maintaining muscular health. It is also a source of energy however, it is not taken in the vegetarian diet. Eggs have high cholesterol but their benefits are greater than their limitation, so eggs can be taken 6 to 12 per week.

 Legumes

 A person who cannot take eggs being vegetarian can replace them with legumes as they are a good source of vitamin B, minerals, protein, and fibers. In the Indian diet variety of legumes are used. These are lentils, peas, peanuts, and gram seeds.

 Nuts and seeds 

 Nuts such as almonds, pistachios, walnut, cashews are rich in fibers, protein, and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) They are also rich in fibers and these are an easy source of energy, can be eaten anytime. Taking them before breakfast is a routine in India.

 Seeds that can be included in diets are sunflower seed, pumpkin seed, flaxseed, and hemp seeds. These are rich in minerals, vitamins, protein as well. These increase the feeling of fullness so they reduce the chances of overeating and being obese.

 Avocados

 Avocado is rich in monounsaturated fatty acids. This is also rich in vitamin C, and antioxidants. Avocados reduce metabolic syndrome. It reduces the risk of cancer and heart disease.

 Sweet potato

 It is rich in vitamin A, potassium, fibers, and antioxidants. Potassium is required for healthy bone formation. Antioxidants reduce the risk of heart disease and cancer.

 Whole grains

These are rich in carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins. These are also rich fibers. 

 

 Yogurt

 It is a probiotic. It is taken in the Indian diet as a component that is rich in calcium, vitamin A, potassium. Probiotics are a source of good gut bacteria. Good gut bacteria keep the gut healthy.

Salmon

It is rich in healthy fats, proteins, vitamin B, potassium, and Selenium. Selenium is a potent antioxidant. It is required in very small amounts. Selenium is required for the proper functioning of the thyroid gland. Thus it helps in keeping good metabolic health of a person. Salmon is a super-food in the non-vegetarian diet.

Seaweeds

 Seaweed is a part of the Asian diet. These have a good amount of vitamin K, iodine, and fibers. Iodine is required for the production of thyroid hormone and growth hormones that are needed in growing age to increase the height of a person.

 Olive oil

 It is rich in monounsaturated fatty acids, that reduce inflammation and healthy fats are required for growth.

 Conclusion

 From the above discussion, it can be concluded, that for good growth it is required that a healthy diet should be taken.  A healthy diet contains monounsaturated fatty acids, minerals, and vitamins as well as protein and carbohydrates. Not a single food is rich in all these components so the first thing we must keep in mind is that, we should have a diversity of foods.  We cannot go for a single food to be healthy be a vegetarian or non-vegetarian person.

 Further, this list is never complete if we cannot include in it the spices and condiments. Turmeric, garlic, ginger are the main spices used in Indian dishes  These are rich in Minerals and antioxidants these also have antimicrobial properties. Turmeric has anti-inflammatory activities. Further, a diet can include the foods that have the above nutrients but are cheaper and easily available regionally.

The height of a person depends on nutrition as well, immunity and metabolism. For a healthy body, a person should

 Reduce intake of junk food.

 Reduce intake of added sugar.

Reduce intake of alcohol.

COMPLEMENT SYSTEM

 

COMPLEMENT SYSTEM OVERVIEW

THE COMPLEMENT SYSTEM 

 The Complement system consists of about 50 proteins that work in the extracellular matrix and ward off or clear the pathogen present in the extracellular matrix. Proteins of the complement system are synthesized in the liver. These proteins are soluble proteins that circulate through the blood to all parts of the body.

 The complement system is part of the second line of defense, it is called the complement system because it complements our immune system. 

The complement system is part of innate immunity as well as adaptive immunity. In innate immunity, it works as a nonspecific system to clear the pathogen from the extracellular matrix. In adaptive immunity, it is activated by antigen-antibody interaction and further, work through recruitment of T cell or B cell to clear of the pathogen.

 The molecules of the complement system are mainly globular proteins that are soluble in water these globular proteins are named C1 to C 9 B and D.

 The complement system has other molecules that are part of its activity, these molecules come under the category of

 Receptors,

 Activators,

 and Regulators.

MECHANISM OF ACTION OF COMPLEMENT SYSTEM

 The complement system works only when it is triggered. Mechanism of the action of the complement system is broadly classified into three different Pathways. All three pathways have three different triggers.

 The classical pathway triggered by antigen-antibody interaction,

 The Lectin pathway is triggered by glucose- mannose of pathogen cell membrane and 

the alternative pathway is triggered by hydrolysis of C3 molecule.

 the culmination of all three pathways can be opsonization, cell lysis, or inflammation.

 In opsonization, components of the complement system cover the pathogenic cell so that the phagocytes can recognize this neutralized pathogen and engulf it.

 Inflammation, the secondary products of the complement system such as C3a, C4a, C5a initiate chemotaxis as these molecules are inflammatory in action. They act through the receptors present on the cell and recruit mast cells that act through the synthesis of histamine and serotonin, these molecules are pro-inflammatory molecules and cause inflammation in the affected area. 

 The complement system produces a membrane attack complex( MAC) which is a complex protein mainly composed of C5b, 6, 7, and 8 and multiple-unit of C9. The C5b recruit C6 and C7 and then attract C8 to the pathogen membrane where they attach themselves to the pathogenic membrane. C8 is the molecule that inserts itself into the pathogenic membrane and forms the base for the assembly of the C 9 complex, where 13 to 15 C9 molecules assemble to form the membrane attack complex MAC, which is 10nm in diameter and it creates a pore in the pathogenic membrane through which the cytoplasm of pathogenic cell escapes to extracellular space and this result in cell lysis.

 The complement system act through a different mechanism as listed earlier that they are activated through the classical pathway, the lectin pathway,  alternative pathway  

 In the classical pathway, the complement system is triggered by antigen-antibody interaction where the binding of antibody IgM or IgG (5-6) on the surface of the pathogen activates the complement system. The antigen-antibody binding attracts C1 protein that has three domains C1q, C1r, C1s. The binding of this molecule then initiates a cascade of events in which different convertases participate. In this process, C3 convertase is synthesized which breakdown the C3 molecule into C3a and C3b, the C3b joins with C2b and forms the C5 convertase. C5 convertase then breakdown the C5 molecule into C5a and C5b.

 C5b recruits C6 and C7 and then C8 on the pathogen cell membrane and result in the formation of membrane attack complex.

 CLASSICAL PATHWAY: COMPLEMENT SYSTEM

The lectin pathway has general and coded pattern recognition receptors such as MBL the mannose-binding lectin, that conduct nonself recognition. These receptors focus on the highly conserved structure of a large group of microorganisms referred to as associated molecular patterns PAMS(pattern associated molecules) include endotoxins, lipopolysaccharides of Gram-Negative bacteria, lipoteichoic acid of Gram-positive bacteria, and beta-glucan of the fungal cell membrane.

 In this pathway, MBL can bind with some common carbohydrates of bacteria, yeast, and some viruses, MBL is complexed with MBL associated serine proteases MASPs 1,2,3, which are functionally similar to the C1 complex, and this association result in the formation of C3 convertase similar to the classical pathway and then the formation of C5 convertase, which dissociates C5 in C5a and C5b. C5b recruited C6, C7, C8, and ultimately C9 for the formation of membrane attack complex(MAC).

LECTIN PATHWAY: COMPLEMENT SYSTEM

The alternative pathway is initiated by hydrolysis of C3 that bind to the factor B, which is dissociated to  Factor Bb and Ba in presence of Factor D and result information of C3 convertase which is 

 C3 (H2O )Bb. The C3 convertase dissociates C3 in C3a and C3b. C3b joins the complex and forms C5 convertase, C5 convertase dissociates C5 in C5a and C5b. C5b recruits C6, C7, C8, and ultimately C9, this results in the formation of MAC the membrane attack complex. 

ALTERNATIVE PATHWAY COMPLEMENT SYSTEM

Cell lysis

Cell lysis or the breakdown of the pathogenic cell is one of the effector mechanisms of action of the complement system. The C5b molecule formed by dissociation of C5 in presence of C5 convertase initiates the formation of membrane attack complex. Where C5b associates with C6, C7, and C8 to form the C5bC6C7C8 complex. This complex attaches itself to the pathogen membrane, C8 even penetrates the membrane. This assembly is joined by the C9 molecule. 12 to 15 molecules of C9 form membrane attack complex  MAC. The MAC has a height of 15nm and a diameter of 10nm. It creates a pore in the pathogen membrane due to which the pathogen cell undergoes lysis.

MAC (MEMBRANE ATTACK COMPLEX)

 

 Inflammatory response

THE secondary molecules formed during the complement system i.e. C3a, C4a, C5a are proinflammatory chemotaxis molecules. These molecules have a receptor on cells of the extracellular matrix. These receptors are called C3aR, C4aR, C5aR.  These receptor molecules are transmembrane protein that is associated with G protein, and through a cascade of events, they help in the secretion of serotonin and histamine and are associated with recruitment of mast cells and which results in inflammation in that area.

C3a RECEPTOR

C4a RECEPTOR

C5a RECEPTOR

 

 Opsonisation and phagocytosis

 The C3b/C4b can bind with the bacterial cell membrane and MBL bind with bacterial cell membrane or antibodies that are bound to bacterial cell membrane resulting in opsonization of pathogen i.e. the covering of the pathogenic cell. This attracts phagocytes to the site of infection. The phagocytes have receptors as CR1, CR2, CR3, CR4, CR1g, and Fc receptors against all these molecules and thus it can bind with the receptors on the pathogen and engulf the opsonized cell this will reduce the population of pathogens in the extracellular matrix.

PHAGOCYTOSIS

Regulation of complement system

The complement system has some side effects also. If it remains triggered it may damage the body tissue. Thus to prevent its damage to body tissues it is required that the complement system must be regulated. Its regulation includes degradation of C3b and C4b in presence of Factor 1. If these molecules are degraded then they will be unable to initiate the membrane attack complex formation. 

Further, the decay-accelerating activity for C3 convertase where decay activating factor disassemble

 C 3 convertase this disassembly will stop the pathway in between. 

For inhibition of cell lysis, C5b 6 7 8 complexes are decayed by vitronectin, S protein, or CD 58, which inhibits assembly of membrane attack complex. 

 C3a, C4a, C5a the pro-inflammatory complexes, are degraded by carboxypeptidases,  these are named carboxypeptidase N, carboxypeptidase B, carboxypeptidase R.

Reference

https://www.nature.com/articles/cr2009139